Enhancing AI literacy in education: A multi-country pre-post quasi-experimental evaluation study
Published 2026-05-30
Keywords
- AI literacy,
- educational technology,
- media education,
- pre-post intervention,
- professional development
Copyright (c) 2026 Maria Ranieri, Gabriele Biagini, Stefano Cuomo, Josephine Christman

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Abstract
This study examines the effectiveness of targeted professional development workshops in enhancing AI literacy preparedness among educators in Romania, France, and Finland, within the framework of the TADAM (Tools & Awareness about Disinformation, Algorithms & Media) project. Using a pre-post design with independent groups, we assessed educators’ perceived preparedness across four dimensions: AI literacy promotion, local knowledge development, training facilitation, and stakeholder networking, before and after participation in country-specific workshops. Results indicate that participants assessed following workshop completion reported substantially higher preparedness levels across all four dimensions compared to those assessed before the workshops, with effect sizes ranging from medium-large to large. Psychometric analysis confirmed excellent internal consistency and strong unidimensional structure of the preparedness measure. Overall, the findings suggest that competency-based professional development models emphasising active learning, collaborative co-design, and contextual adaptation may be associated with meaningful gains in educators’ perceived preparedness in emerging technological domains, while acknowledging the methodological limitations inherent in non-randomised designs.
References
- Bender, E. M., Gebru, T., McMillan-Major, A., & Shmitchell, S. (2021). On the dangers of stochastic parrots: Can language models be too big? Proceedings of the 2021 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency, 610–623. https://doi.org/10.1145/3442188.3445922
- Caena, F., & Redecker, C. (2019). Aligning teacher competence frameworks to 21st century challenges: The case for the European Digital Competence Framework for Educators (Digcompedu). European Journal of Education, 54(3), 356–369. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12345
- Celik, I., Dindar, M., Muukkonen, H., & Järvelä, S. (2022). The promises and challenges of artificial intelligence for teachers: A systematic review of research. TechTrends, 66(4), 616–630. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-022-00715-y
- Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
- Crompton, H., & Burke, D. (2023). Artificial intelligence in higher education: The state of the field. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 20(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-023-00392-8
- Darling-Hammond, L., Hyler, M. E., & Gardner, M. (2017). Effective teacher professional development. Learning Policy Institute.
- Desimone, L. M. (2009). Improving impact studies of teachers’ professional development: Toward better conceptualizations and measures. Educational Researcher, 38(3), 181–199. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X08331140
- Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. Macmillan.
- Dunning, D., Heath, C., & Suls, J. M. (2004). Flawed self-assessment: Implications for health, education, and the workplace. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 5(3), 69–106. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1529-1006.2004.00018.x
- European Commission. (2020). Digital Education Action Plan 2021–2027: Resetting education and training for the digital age. Publications Office of the European Union.
- Gay, G. (2018). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice (3rd ed.). Teachers College Press.
- Guskey, T. R. (2000). Evaluating professional development. Corwin Press.
- Holmes, W., Bialik, M., & Fadel, C. (2019). Artificial intelligence in education: Promises and implications for teaching and learning. Center for Curriculum Redesign.
- Kennedy, M. M. (2016). How does professional development improve teaching? Review of Educational Research, 86(4), 945–980. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315626800
- Kim, N., & Kim, M. (2022). Teacher’s perceptions of using an artificial intelligence-based educational tool for scientific writing. Frontiers in Education, 7, Article 755914. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.755914
- Laupichler, M. C., Aster, A., Schirch, J., & Raupach, T. (2022). Artificial intelligence literacy in higher and adult education: A scoping literature review. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 3, Article 100101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2022.100101
- Lawless, K. A., & Pellegrino, J. W. (2007). Professional development in integrating technology into teaching and learning: Knowns, unknowns, and ways to pursue better questions and answers. Review of Educational Research, 77(4), 575–614. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654307309921
- Long, D., & Magerko, B. (2020). What is AI literacy? Competencies and design considerations. In Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 1–16). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3313831.3376727
- Luckin, R., Cukurova, M., Kent, C., & du Boulay, B. (2022). Empowering educators to be AI-ready. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 3, Article 100076. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2022.100076
- Merrill, M. D. (2002). First principles of instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(3), 43–59. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02505024
- Ng, D. T. K., Leung, J. K. L., Chu, S. K. W., & Qiao, M. S. (2021). Conceptualizing AI literacy: An exploratory review. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 2, Article 100041. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2021.100041
- Ng, D. T. K., Su, J., Leung, J. K. L., & Chu, S. K. W. (2023). Teachers’ AI digital competencies and twenty-first century skills in the post-pandemic world. Educational Technology Research and Development, 71(1), 137–161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-023-10203-6
- Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
- Opfer, V. D., & Pedder, D. (2011). Conceptualizing teacher professional learning. Review of Educational Research, 81(3), 376–407. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654311413609
- Paris, D., & Alim, H. S. (Eds.). (2017). Culturally sustaining pedagogies: Teaching and learning for justice in a changing world. Teachers College Press.
- Reichardt, C. S. (2019). Quasi-experimentation: A guide to design and analysis. Guilford Press.
- Schmid, R., Pauli, C., & Stebler, R. (2020). Professional development for teachers’ use of ICT: A systematic review. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 58(2), 291–312. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633119883722
- Selwyn, N. (2019). Should robots replace teachers? AI and the future of education. Polity Press.
- Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference. Houghton Mifflin.
- Southworth, J., Migliaccio, K., Glover, J., Glover, J. M., Reed, D., McCarty, C., Brendemuhl, J., & Thomas, A. (2023). Developing a model for AI across the curriculum: Transforming the higher education landscape via innovation in AI literacy. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 4, Article 100127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100127
- Su, J., Ng, D. T. K., & Chu, S. K. W. (2023). Artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in early childhood education: The challenges and opportunities. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 4, Article 100124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100124
- Tetzlaff, L., Schmiedek, F., & Brod, G. (2021). Developing personalized education: A dynamic framework. Educational Psychology Review, 33(3), 863–882. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-020-09570-w
- Tondeur, J., Forkosh-Baruch, A., Prestridge, S., Albion, P., & Edirisinghe, S. (2016). Responding to challenges in teacher professional development for ICT integration in education. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 19(3), 110–120.
- Tondeur, J., Howard, S. K., & Yang, J. (2021). One-size does not fit all: Towards an adaptive model to develop preservice teachers’ digital competencies. Computers in Human Behavior, 116, Article 106659. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106659
- Vangrieken, K., Dochy, F., Raes, E., & Kyndt, E. (2015). Teacher collaboration: A systematic review. Educational Research Review, 15, 17–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.04.002
- Voogt, J., Knezek, G., Cox, M., Knezek, D., & ten Brummelhuis, A. (2013). Under which conditions does ICT have a positive effect on teaching and learning? A call to action. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 29(1), 4–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2729.2011.00453.x
- Wardle, C., & Derakhshan, H. (2017). Information disorder: Toward an interdisciplinary framework for research and policy making. Council of Europe.
- Welch, B. L. (1947). The generalization of ‘Student’s’ problem when several different population variances are involved. Biometrika, 34(1–2), 28–35. https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/34.1-2.28
- Williamson, B., Bayne, S., & Shay, S. (2020). The datafication of teaching in higher education: Critical issues and perspectives. Teaching in Higher Education, 25(4), 351–365. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2020.1748811
- Zawacki-Richter, O., Marín, V. I., Bond, M., & Gouverneur, F. (2019). Systematic review of research on artificial intelligence applications in higher education: Where are the educators? International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 16(1), Article 39. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-019-0171-0