Just Accepted Manuscripts
Articles

Rainbow ballots: introducing the Italian LGBTIQ+ electoral survey 2024

Massimo Prearo
University of Verona
Bio
Federico Trastulli
University of Verona
Bio

Published 2025-09-17

Keywords

  • Survey Data,
  • LGBTIQ+ Politics,
  • Issue Attitudes,
  • Voting Behaviour,
  • Political Participation,
  • Italy
  • ...More
    Less

How to Cite

Prearo, M., & Trastulli, F. (2025). Rainbow ballots: introducing the Italian LGBTIQ+ electoral survey 2024. Italian Journal of Electoral Studies (IJES). https://doi.org/10.36253/qoe-17696

Abstract

The development of an empirics-based political science agenda on the electoral dimension of LGBTIQ+ citizens has been traditionally hindered by the widespread lack of individual-level data related to the sensitivity of their identity, including in Italy. In this paper, we contribute to the literature by first presenting an innovative survey, providing novel public-opinion data on the political participation, issue attitudes, and vote choice of a large number of Italian LGBTIQ+ citizens. We detail the rationale and challenges related to our research, leading to our strategic approach to the development of a self-selected sample based on an original sampling technique. On this basis, in an area of public debate often dominated by clichés rather than scientific evidence, we introduce first empirics on Italian LGBTIQ+ respondents. In line with existing studies from other Western national contexts, our LGBTIQ+ sample is active in civil society and politics – albeit not “activist” –, consistently votes in elections, and is markedly left-wing in values, issue attitudes, and vote choice. We discuss the scientific and societal contributions of our paper in detail.

References

  1. Abou-Chadi, T., Breyer, M., & Gessler, T. (2021). The (re)politicisation of gender in Western Europe. European Journal of Politics and Gender, 4(2), 311-314.
  2. Albaugh, Q. M., Harell, A., Loewen, P. J., Rubenson, D., & Stephenson, L. B. (2024). From Gender Gap to Gender Gaps: Bringing Nonbinary People into Political Behavior Research. Perspectives on Politics, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592724000975.
  3. Aldrich, R. (2004). Homosexuality and the City: An Historical Overview. Urban Studies, 41(9), 1719-1737.
  4. Angelucci, D., Trastulli, F., & Tuorto, D. (2024). Cronaca di una morte annunciata. La partecipazione elettorale in Italia, 2022. In A. Chiaramonte & L. De Sio (Eds.), Un polo solo: Le elezioni politiche del 2022 (pp. 107-138). Bologna: Il Mulino.
  5. Ayoub, P. M. (2022). Not that niche: making room for the study of LGBTIQ people in political science. European Journal of Politics and Gender, 5(2), 154-172.
  6. Ayoub, P.M. and Kollman, K. (2021), (Same)-sex in the city: Urbanisation and LGBTI rights expansion. European Journal of Political Research, 60, 603-624.
  7. Barber, M., & Holbein, J. B. (2022). 400 million voting records show profound racial and geographic disparities in voter turnout in the United States. PLOS One, 17(6), e0268134.
  8. Bailey, R. C. (1999). Gay Politics, Urban Politics. New York: Columbia University Press.
  9. Bobbio, N. (1997). Left and Right: The Significance of a Political Distinction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  10. Campbell, A., Converse, P. E., Miller, W. E., & Stokes, D. E. (1960). The American Voter. New York: Wiley.
  11. Chan, N. K., & Magni, G. (2025). The Group-Basis of Political Behaviour among Minoritized Communities: The Case of LGBTQ+ Linked Fate and Sexual and Gender Minorities. British Journal of Political Science, 55, e30.
  12. Chiaramonte, A., Emanuele, V., Maggini, N., & Paparo, A. (2022). Radical-Right Surge in a Deinstitutionalised Party System: The 2022 Italian General Election. South European Society and Politics, 27(3), 329-357.
  13. De Sio, L., Emanuele, V., Maggini, N., Paparo, A., Angelucci, D., & D’Alimonte, R. (2019). Issue Competition Comparative Project (ICCP). Retrieved from https://search.gesis.org/research_data/ZA7499?doi=10.4232/1.13374.
  14. Denise, E. J. (2017). Sexual orientation differences in attitudes about sexuality, race, and gender. Social Science Research, 61, 126-141.
  15. Dunlap, A. (2016). Changes in coming out milestones across five age cohorts. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 28(1), 20-38.
  16. Ebbinghaus, B. & Visser, J. (2000). Trade unions in Western Europe since 1945. London: Macmillan/Palgrave.
  17. Egan, P. J. (2012). Group cohesion without group mobilization: The case of lesbians, gays and bisexuals. British Journal of Political Science, 42(3), 597-616.
  18. EU Agency for Fundamental Rights (EU FRA) (2020). A long way to go for LGBTI equality. Retrieved from https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2020/eu-lgbti-survey-results.
  19. Flores, A. R. (2015). Examining Variation In Surveying Attitudes On Same-Sex Marriage: A Meta-Analysis. Public Opinion Quarterly, 79(2), 580-593.
  20. Fraga, B. L. (2018). The Turnout Gap: Race, Ethnicity, and Political Inequality in a Diversifying America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  21. Grahn, M. (2024). Still proud at the polls? LGBT+ rights don't dilute the sexuality turnout gap. European Journal of Political Research, 63(3), 973-996.
  22. Gray, M. L. (2009). Out in the Country. New York City: NYU Press.
  23. Groves, R. M., Fowler Jr, F. J., Couper, M. P., Lepkowski, J. M., Singer, E., & Tourangeau, R. (2009). Survey Methodology [2nd Edition]. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.
  24. Gusmeroli, P., & Trappolin, L. (Eds.) (2023). Ricerca sulle discriminazioni e sulle violenze determinate dall’orientamento sessuale e dall’identità di genere in Emilia‑Romagna. Retrieved from https://parita.regione.emilia-romagna.it/pubblicazioni/2023/ricerca-sulle-discriminazioni-e-sulle-violenze-determinate-dall2019orientamento-sessuale-e-dall2019identita-di-genere-in-emiliaromagna.
  25. Guyan, K. (2022). Queer Data: Using Gender, Sex and Sexuality Data for Action. Bloomsbury Publishing.
  26. Herman, J. L. (Ed.) (2014). Best Practices for Asking Questions to Identify Transgender and Other Gender Minority Respondents on Population-Based Surveys. Retrieved from https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/publications/geniuss-trans-pop-based-survey/.
  27. Hernández, E., Anduiza, E., & Rico, G. (2021). Affective polarization and the salience of elections. Electoral Studies, 69, 102203.
  28. Hertzog, M. (1996). The Lavender Vote. New York: NYU Press.
  29. Hunklinger, M., & Ferch, N. (2020). Trans* voting: demand and supply side of trans* politics in Germany. European Journal of Politics and Gender, 3(3), 389-408.
  30. Hunklinger, M, & Ajanović, E. (2023). Voting Right? Analyzing Electoral Homonationalism of LGBTIQ* Voters in Austria and Germany. Social Politics, 29(1), 24-49.
  31. Hunklinger, M., & Kleer, P. (2024). Why do LGB vote left? Insight into left-wing voting of lesbian, gay and bisexual citizens in Austria. Electoral Studies, 87, 102727.
  32. IPSOS. (2024). IPSOS LGBT+ Pride Report 2024: A 26-Country Ipsos Global Advisor Survey. Retrieved from https://www.ipsos.com/sites/default/files/ct/news/documents/2024-06/Pride-Report-2024_2.pdf.
  33. Jones, P. E. (2021). Political Distinctiveness and Diversity Among LGBT Americans Get access Arrow. Public Opinion Quarterly, 85(2), 594-622.
  34. Khoury, R. B. (2020). Hard-to-Survey Populations and Respondent-Driven Sampling: Expanding the Political Science Toolbox. Perspectives on Politics, 18(2), 509-526.
  35. Magni, G. (2020). Elections and the role of LGBT issues in the United States and abroad. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics. Retrieved from https://oxfordre.com/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-1210.
  36. Medeiros, M., Forest, B., & Öhberg, P. (2019). The Case for Non-Binary Gender Questions in Surveys. PS: Political Science & Politics, 53(1), 128-135.
  37. Mosca, L., & Tronconi, F. (2019). Beyond left and right: the eclectic populism of the Five Star Movement. West European Politics, 42(6), 1258-1283.
  38. Mucciaroni, G. (2011). The study of LGBT politics and its contributions to political science. PS: Political Science & Politics, 44, 17-21.
  39. Novkov, J., & Barclay, S. (2010). Lesbians, Gays, Bisexuals, and the Transgendered in Political Science: Report on a Discipline-Wide Survey. PS: Political Science & Politics, 43(01), 95-106.
  40. Off, G., & Trastulli, F. (forthcoming). Who Prioritises What? Determinants and Measurement of Voters’ Issue Prioritisation. European Journal of Political Research.
  41. Paternotte, D. (2018). Coming out of the political science closet: the study of LGBT politics in Europe. European Journal of Politics and Gender, 1, 55-74.
  42. Prearo, M., & Scopelliti, A. (2024). Framing Populist Radical Right Opposition to LGBTIQ+ Issues. Lega and Fratelli d’Italia’s Strategies on Social Media, Comunicazione politica, Quadrimestrale dell'Associazione Italiana di Comunicazione Politica, 3, 357-384.
  43. Prearo, M., & Trastulli, F. (2025). Double-edged Swords? Party Ideology, Activism, and Visibility in the Careers of Italian LGBT+ Politicians. Social Politics. https://doi.org/10.1093/sp/jxae035.
  44. Prearo, M., & Trastulli, F. (2024). Beyond electoral performance: reviewing and advancing the literature on LGBTIQ+ political careers. Italian Political Science Review/Rivista Italiana Di Scienza Politica, 54(2), 154-160.
  45. Prearo, M., Trastulli, F., & Pansardi, P. (2024). L’opinione pubblica italiana e i diritti LGBT+: Un’accettazione selettiva? Retrieved from https://sites.dsu.univr.it/politesse/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Report-scientifico-Survey-LGBT-2024-2-2.pdf.
  46. Reif, K., & Schmitt, H. (1980). Nine second‐order national elections–a conceptual framework for the analysis of European Election results. European Journal of Political Research, 8(1), 3-44.
  47. Sibley, A. (2024). Behind the British New Far-Right’s veil: Do individuals adopt strategic liberalism to appear more moderate or are they semi-liberal? British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 26(1), 79-95.
  48. Spierings, N. (2021). Homonationalism and Voting for the Populist Radical Right: Addressing Unanswered Questions by Zooming in on the Dutch Case. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 33(1), 171-182.
  49. Trastulli, F. (2022). Two is Better than One? Testing a Deductive MARPOR-based Left-Right Index on Western Europe (1999-2019). Italian Journal of Electoral Studies (IJES), 85(2), 59-76.
  50. Turnbull-Dugarte, S. J. (2020). The European lavender vote: Sexuality, ideology and vote choice in Western Europe. European Journal of Political Research, 59(3), 517-537.
  51. Turnbull-Dugarte, S. J. (2021). Multidimensional issue preferences of the European lavender vote. Journal of European Public Policy, 28(11), 1827-1848.
  52. Turnbull-Dugarte, S. J. (2022). Rainbows and traffic lights: queer voters at the German ballot box. European Journal of Politics and Gender, 6(1), 134-138.
  53. Turnbull-Dugarte, S. J. (2024). Fine for Adam & Eve but not Adam & Steve? Homonegativity bias, parasocial contact, and public support for surrogacy. Journal of European Public Policy, 31(2), 374-402.
  54. Turnbull-Dugarte, S. J., & López Ortega, A. (2024). Instrumentally Inclusive: The Political Psychology of Homonationalism. American Political Science Review, 118(3), 1360-1378.
  55. Turnbull-Dugarte, S. J., & Townsley, J. (2020). Political engagement and turnout among same-sex couples in Western Europe. Research & Politics, 7(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/2053168020976952.
  56. van Biezen, I., Mair, P., & Poguntke, T. (2012). Going, going, …gone? The decline of party membership in contemporary Europe. European Journal of Political Research, 51, 24–56.
  57. Vezzoni, C., Basile, L., Garzia, D., Maggini, M., Mancosu, M., & Paparo, A. (2023). Itanes 2022 - Italian National Election Study 2022. Retrieved from https://dataverse.unimi.it/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=doi:10.13130/RD_UNIMI/JV77WR.
  58. White, J. (2011). Left and right as political resources. Journal of Political Ideologies, 16(2), 123–144.
  59. Wurthmann, L. C. (2023). German gays go green? Voting behaviour of lesbians, gays, and bisexuals in the 2021 German federal election. Electoral Studies, 81, 102558.
  60. Wurthmann, L. C. (2024). Political Attitudes and Sexual Identity in Germany: Examining the Sexuality Gap. Swiss Political Science Review, https://doi.org/10.1111/spsr.12645.